Veins are low—pressure vessels that have larger lumina and thinner walls than arteries. In general, veins have more collagenous connec tive tissue and less muscle and elastic tissue than their arterial coun terparts. Although the walls of veins usually exhibit the three layers, they are much less distinct than those of the arter ies. Unlike arteries, veins contain one—way valves composed of exten sions of the intima that prevent reflux of blood away from the heart. Veins can be divided into small veins or venules, medium veins, and large veins.

Venules are the smallest veins, ranging in diameter from approxi mately 15–20 mm (post—capillary venules) up to 1–2 mm (small veins). The walls of the smaller of these are structurally and func tionally like those of the capillaries; they consist of an endothelium surrounded by delicate collagen fibers and some pericytes. In those vessels of increased diameter, circularly arranged smooth muscle cells occur surrounding the intima layer, but unlike in the small arteries, these cells are loosely woven and widely spaced. Venules are important in inflammation because their endothelial cells are sensitive to hista—mine released by local mast cells. This causes endotheli—al cells to contract and separate from each other, exposing a naked basement membrane. Neutrophils stick to the exposed collagen and extravasate (i. e., move out into the connective tissue). Histamine also causes local arterioles to relax, affect ing a rise in venous pressure and increased leaking of fluid. This produces the classic signs of inflammation: redness, heat, and swelling.

Medium veins in the range of 1–9 mm in diameter have a well – developed intima, a media consisting of connective tissue and loosely organized smooth muscle, and an adventitia (usually the thickest layer) composed of collagen bundles, elastic fibers, and smooth muscle cells oriented along the longitudinal axis of the vessel. Venous valves are sheet—like outfoldings of endothelium and underlying connective tissue that form flaps to permit uni—di rectional flow of blood.

Large veins, such as the external iliac, hepatic portal, and vena cavae, are the major conduits of return toward the heart. The intima is similar to that of medium veins. Although a network of elastic fibers may occur at the boundary between the intima andmedia, a typical internal elastic membrane as seen in arteries is not present. A tunica media may or may not be present. If pre sent, smooth muscle cells are most often circularly arranged. The ad—ventitia is the thickest layer of the wall and consists of elastic fibers and longitudinal bundles of collagen. In the vena cava, this layer also contains well—developed bundles of longitudinally oriented smooth muscle.

New words

vein – вена

low—pressure – низкое давление

collagenous – коллагеновый

intima – интима

reflux – рефлюкс

inflammation – воспаление

longitudinal – продольный

flaps – створки

iliac – подвздошный

hepatic – печеночный

The heart is a muscular organ, composed primarily of cardiac muscle tissue, which contracts rhythmically to pump blood throughout the body. Structure of the heart wall: the walls of the heart are constructed in layers that are similar to those of the major blood vessels.

Endocardium is the innermost layer of the heart and is lined with endothelium. Veins, nerves, and components of the impulse conduc—ting system are present in the suben—docardial connective tissue layer.

Myocardium is composed of branching, anastomotic cardiac myocytes attached to one another by intercalated disks. Most of these cells are involved in the pumping function of the heart; others are specialized for the control of rhythmicity (impulse conducting system) or secretion (myocardial endocrine cells).

Epicardium is a serous membrane that forms the visceral lining of the pericardium. Its external mesothelium is supported by a loose connective tissue subepicardial layer.

Cardiac skeleton is composed mainly of dense connective tissue and consists of the annuli fibrosi, the trigonum fibrosum, and the septum membranaceum.

Cardiac valves are composed of dense fibrous tissue covered by endothelium. Unidirectional flow is maintained from the.

Right atrium to the right ventricle (tricuspid valve).

Right ventricle to the pulmonary artery (pulmonic semilunar valve). Left atrium to the left ventricle (mitral/bicuspid valve).

Left ventricle to the aorta (aortic semilunar valve).

Tricuspid and mitral valves are attached to papillary muscles by cords of fibrous connective tissue (chordae tendineae) and prevent reflux of blood into the atria during 26б ventricular con traction (systole). Semilunar valves (aortic and pulmonic) prevent reflux of blood back into the ventricles during ventricular relaxation (diastole).

Impulse conducting system of the heart consists of specialized cardiac myocytes that are characterized by auto—maticity and rhythmicity (i. e., they are independent of nervous stimulation and possess the ability to initiate heart beats). These specialized cells are located in the sino—atrial (SA) node (pacemaker), intern—odal tracts, atrioven—tricular (AV) node, AV bundle (of His), left and right bundle branches, and numerous smaller branches to the left and right ventricular walls. Impulse conduct ing myocytes are in electrical contact with each other and with normal contractile myocytes via communicating (gap) junctions. Specialized wide—diameter impulse conducting cells (Pur—kinje myocytes), with greatly reduced myofilament components, are well—adapted to increase conduction velocity. They rapidly deliver the wave of depolarization to ventricular myocytes.

New words

heart – сердце

muscular – мышечный

cardiac – сердечный

to pump – качать

endocardium – эндокардиум

innermost – самый внутренний

conducting system – проведение системы

subendocardial – внутрисердечный

impulse – импульс

fibrosi – фиброзные кольца

Intrapulmonary bronchi: the primary bronchi give rise to three main branches in the right lung and two branches in the left lung, each of which supply a pulmonary lobe. These lobar bronchi divide repeatedly to give rise to bronchioles.

Mucosa consists of the typical respiratory epithelium.

Submucosa consists of elastic tissue with fewer mixed glands than seen in the trachea.

Anastomosing cartilage plates replace the C—shaped rings found in the trachea and extra pulmonary portions of the pri mary bronchi.

Bronchioles do not possess cartilage, glands, or lymphatic nodules; however, they contain the highest proportion of smooth r muscle in the bronchial tree. Bronchioles branch up to 12 times to supply lobules in the lung.

Bronchioles are lined by ciliated, simple, columnar epithelium with nonciliated bronchiolar cells. The musculature of the bronchi and bronchioles con tracts following stimulation by parasympathetic fibers (vagus nerve) and relaxes in response to sympathetic fibers. Terminal bronchioles consist of low—ciliated epithelium with bronchiolar cells.

The costal surface is a large convex area related to the inner surface of the ribs.

The mediastinal surface is a concave medial surface, contains the root, or hilus, of the lung.

The diaphragmatic surface (base) is related to the convex sur face of the diaphragm. The apex (cupola) protrudes into the root of the neck.

The hilus is the point of attachment for the root of the lung. It contains the bronchi, pulmonary and bronchial vessels, lym phatics, and nerves. Lobes and fissures.