directly – непосредственно

periosteum – надкостница

bone – кость

cilia – ресница

oropharynx – верхняя часть глотки

stratified – стратифицированный

squamous – чешуйчатый

nonkeratinized – некеритизированный

somewhere – где—нибудь, куда—нибудь, где—то, куда—то

The trachea, a hollow cylinder supported by 16–20 cartilaginous rings, is continuous with the larynx above and the branching primary bronchi below.

Mucosa of the trachea consists of the typical respiratory epitheli um, an unusually thick basement membrane, and an underlying lamina propria that is rich in elastin. The lamina propria contains loose elastic tissue with blood vessels, lymphatics, and defensive cells. The outer edge of the lamina propria is defined by a dense network of elastic fibers.

Submucosa consists of dense elastic connective tissue with seroriltfcous glands whose ducts open onto the surface of the epithe lium.

Cartilage rings are C—shaped hyaline cartilage pieces whose free extremities point dorsally (posteriorly). They are covered by a perichondrium of fibrous connective tissue that surrounds each of the cartilages. Smooth muscle bundles (trachealis muscle) and ligaments span the dorsal part of each cartilage.

Adventita a consists of peripheral dense connective tissue that binds the trachea to surrounding tissues.

Primary bronchi

The trachea branches at its distal end into the two primary bronchi. Short extrapulmonary segments of the primary bronchi exist before they enter the lungs at the hilus and then branch further. The histologic structure of the walls of the extrapulmonary segment of the primary bronchi is similar to that of the tracheal wall.

New words

hollow – пустота

cylinder – цилиндр

supported – поддержанный

cartilaginous

rings – хрящевые кольца

larynx – гортань

above – выше

branching – переход

primary bronchi – первичные бронхи

below – ниже

mucosa – слизистая оболочка

typical – типичный

respiratory epitheli um – дыхательный эпителий

an unusually – нетипитчно

thick – толстый

basement – основание

underlying – основной

lamina – тонкая пластинка

rich – богатый

elastin – эластин

loose – свободный

vessel – сосуд

lymphatics – лимфатический

defensive cells – защитные клетки

outer – внешний

edge – край

Respiratory bronchioles are areas of transition (hybrids) between the conducting and respiratory portions of the airways. In addi tion to the typical bronchiolar epithelium of the terminal bron chioles, these passageways contain outpouchings of alveoli, which comprise the respiratory portion of this system.

Terminal bronchioles give rise to respiratory bronchioles.

Respiratory bronchioles branch to form two to three alveolar ducts, which are long sinuous tubes.

Alveolar sacs are spaces formed by two or more conjoined alveoli. They are lined by the simple squamous alveolar epithe lium. Alveoli are the terminal, thin—walled sacs of the respiratory tree that are responsible for gas exchange. There are approximately 300 million alveoli per lung, each one 200–300 mm in diameter. Blood—air interface. Oxygen in the alveoli is separated from hemoglobin in the red blood cells of alveolar capillaries by five layers of membrane and cells: the alveolar epithelial cell (api cal and basal membranes) and its basal lamina, the basal lami na of the capillary and its endothelial cell (basal and apical membranes), and the erythrocyte membrane. The total thick ness of all these layers can be as thin as 0,5 mm.

Alveolar epithelium contains two cell types. Type I cells completely cover the alveolar luminal surface and provide a thin surface for gas exchange. This simple squamous epithelium is so thin (-25 nm) that its details are beyond the resolution of the light microscope.

Type II cells are rounded, plump, cuboidal—like cells that sit on the basal lamina of the epithelium and contain mem brane—bound granules of phospholipid and protein (lamel lar bodies). The contents of these lamellar bodies are secreted onto the alveolar surface to provide a coating of surfactant that reduces alveolar surface tension.

Alveolar macrophages (dust cells) are found on the surface of the alveoli.

Derived from monocytes that extravasate from alveolar capillaries, alveotar macrophages are part of the mononu – clear phagocyte system. Dust cells, as their name implies, continuously remove parti cles and other irritants in the alveoli by phagocytosis.

New words

respiratory bronchioles – дыхательные бронхиолы

hybrids – гибриды

respiratory portions – дыхательные части

airways – воздушные трассы

bronchiolar – бронхиолярный

terminal bron chioles – предельные бронхиолы

passageway – проходы

tocomprise – включить

ducts – трубочки

sinuous tubes – извилистые трубы

thin—walled – окруженный тонкой стеной

sacs – мешочки

respiratory tree – дыхательное дерево

hemoglobin – гемоглобин

apical – апикальный

Visceral pleura is a thin serous membrane that covers the outer surface of the lungs. A delicate connective tissue layer of collagen and elastin, containing lymphatic channels, vessels, and nerves, supports the membrane. Its surface is covered by simple squamous mesothelium with microvilli.

Parietal pleura is that portion of the pleura that continues onto the inner aspect of the thoracic wall. It is continuous with the visceral pleura and is lined by the same me—sothelium.

Pleural cavity is a very narrow fluid—filled space that contains monocytes located between the two pleural membranes. It contains no gases and becomes a true cavity only in disease (e. g., in pleural infection, fluid and pus may accumulate in the pleural space). If the chest wall is punctured, air may enter the pleural space (pneumotho—rax), breaking the vacuum, and allowing the lung to recoil. Parietal pleura lines the inner surface of the thoracic cavity; visceral pleura follows the contours of the lung itself.

Pleural cavity: The pleural cavity is the space between the parietal and viscer al layers of the pleura. It is a sealed, blind space. The introduc tion of air into the pleural cavity may cause the lung to col lapse (pneumothorax).

It normally contains a small amount of serous fluid elaborated by mesothelial cells of the pleural membrane.

Pleural reflections are areas where the pleura changes direction from one wall to the other. The sternal line of reflection is where the costal pleura is con tinuous with the mediastinal pleura behind the sternum (from costal cartilages 2–4). The pleural margin then passes inferiorly to the level of the sixth costal cartilage. The costal line of reflection is where the costal pleura becomes continuous with the diaphragmatic pleura from rib 8 in the mid—clavicular line, to rib 10 in the midaxillary line, and to rib 12 lateral to the vertebral column. Pleural recesses are potential spaces not occupied by lung tissue except during deep inspiration. Costodiaphragmatic recesses are spaces below the inferior borders of the lungs where costal and diaphragmatic pleura are in contact. Costomedia—stinal recess is a space where the left costal and mediasti—nal parietal pleura meet, leaving a space due to the cardiac notch of the left lung. This space is occupied by the lingu—la of the left lung during inspiration.

In nervation of the parietal pleura: The costal and peripheral portions of the diaphragmatic pleu ra are supplied by intercostal nerves.